Handwriting

Most adults during their working day interact with a computer or other digital device to word process, to work with programs designed for specific task-related outcomes or to communicate with others. Computers and other digital devices are also commonplace in educational locations from preschool to tertiary settings.

However, despite the rapid technological advancements in digital forms of communication, the need for a careful balance between these advancements and written language is still required (Mackenzie & Spokes, 2024). Efficient (quick, automatic and legible) handwriting has also been linked to academic achievement and literacy skills, especially composition length and quality in primary and secondary schooling (Doug, 2019; Limpo et al, 2020).

Literacy in the twenty-first century requires its members to create or complete both handwritten and digital texts such as government and other agency forms, undertake standardised tests, take meaningful notes, keep a personal diary, provide a signature, opt to complete leisure activities such as word puzzles and communicate via text messaging.

Developing an automated personal handwritten script is a contributing element to writing success (Medwell and Wray, 2014; Schlagal, 2014). The physical act of handwriting is a complex one; it requires the integration of perceptual-motor skills and higher-level cognitive skills (Case-Smith, Holland & Bishop, 2011) and the kinaesthetic process of writing is linked to writing achievement (Daffern, Mackenzie & Hemmings, 2017; Graham, Harris & Fink, 2000). 

Additionally, developing automated keyboarding skills is a contributing element to writing success especially when students are expected to compose digitally.  To free up the cognitive demands required of recording, handwriting or keyboarding skills need to become automated (Cahill, 2009; Poole and Preciado, 2016). Educators therefore need to consider not only what their students write but how they record it too.

Handwriting or keyboarding in primary schools?

Internationally, the United Kingdom, Singapore and France have retained or revisited the importance of explicitly teaching handwriting in primary settings, while in Finland and the USA the explicit teaching of handwriting along with the development of keyboarding skills are implemented (Mackenzie & Spokes, 2018).

The Victorian English Curriculum specifically addresses the development of both skills. Handwriting skills are outlined in the outcomes set for all levels from Foundation to Level 7. Students begin learning “letter formation patterns” in their first year of schooling and work towards developing a “personal handwriting style that is legible, fluent and automatic and supports writing for extended periods” in Level 7 (VCAA, 2017).

In conjunction with learning to handwrite is the expectation that all students will learn how to create texts using software programs. For example, Foundation students are required to “construct texts using software including word processing programs” while the Level 10 outcome states students must “use a range of software, including word processing programs, confidently, flexibly and imaginatively to create, edit and publish texts” (VCAA, 2017).

The research evidence

Key findings of research into the teaching of handwriting and keyboarding skills include:

• Handwriting does matter and is more closely related to academic achievement than most educators realise (Cahill, 2009; Daffern, Mackenzie & Hemmings, 2017; Longcamp, Zerbato-Poudou & Velay, 2005; Medwell & Wray, 2007). Conversely, there is an absence of research on the long-term impact of not teaching handwriting (Mackenzie and Spokes, 2018).
• Handwriting should be the dominant recording skill taught in the first three years of schooling followed by the addition of keyboarding skills in Years 3 to 6 (Mackenzie & Spokes, 2018)
• The physical act of handwriting benefits early literacy learners because the kinaesthetic action contributes to greater recognition and memorisation of letters. Handwriting practice produced better letter recognition in students than those who solely used typing and digital devices (Longcamp, Zerbato-Poudou & Velay, 2005).
• Repeated practice through handwriting fluency activities in the early years encourages the connection between the letter names, sounds, and forms, resulting in stronger letter identification and letter-sound correspondence (Ray et al., 2021)
  
• Being able to handwrite one’s own name is an important element in predicting early writing success in young learners (Daffern, Mackenzie & Hemmings, 2017).
• Forming letters by hand contributes to a stronger knowledge of words and assists with spelling. When words are written in a continuous flow rather than typed as separate letters, spelling memory is enhanced (Cahill, 2009; Schlagal, 2014).
• Students who have difficulty with handwriting spend most of their energy directed towards the motor process rather than thinking creatively or developing their ideas. Poor handwriting results in less length and quality of content (Cahill, 2009; Graham, 2010; Medwell & Wray, 2007). 
• Students in primary grades write more quickly and their writing is of a greater length when they use a pen. This research contradicts other findings which state children write more quickly if trained to use keyboards (Schlagal, 2014).
• Keyboarding skills should be considered as an alternative if a student is unable to meet the physical demands required of the handwriting task (Handley-More, Deitz, Billingsley & Coggins, 2003). School psychologists, occupational therapists and educational specialists are best placed to advise teachers of the individual adjustments required for student learning (Cahill, 2009).
• Handwriting skills needs to become automated to free up working memory. The ability to use orthographic fluency (that is the skill of forming letters, groups of letters and words efficiently and automatically) is necessary so that higher order cognitive skills can be allocated to the thinking and composing of text (Case-Smith, Holland & Bishop, 2011; Jones & Christensen, 1999; Medwell & Wray, 2007; 2014).
• Girls tend to have better orthographic fluency than boys. Handwriting can sometimes be more problematic for boys (Daffern, Mackenzie & Hemmings, 2016; Medwell & Wray, 2007). However, this may also be due to other factors such as motivation, self-efficacy and the relationship between the teacher and student (Daffern, Mackenzie and Hemmings, 2017).
  
• As English is written from left to right, some left-handed students are likely to find learning handwriting more difficult than right-handed students (Mackenzie & Spokes, in press).
  
• Handwriting fluency contributes directly to writing fluency (Graham, Berninger, Abbott, Abbott & Whitaker, 1997).

Teaching handwriting

Even though some students seem to handwrite effortlessly, all students require explicit teaching. Recent research suggests consistent practice of efficient processes, provides students with opportunities to develop emerging skills is most beneficial for developing handwriting fluency amd automaticity (Cahill, 2009; Schlagal, 2014).

In the early years of schooling, the phonological aspects of reading and writing need to be taught concurrently (Moats, 2020). This includes handwriting letters to consolidate letter-sound correspondence.

Handwriting instruction should include:

1. Teacher modelling of the correct formation, sizing and placement of letters. For early learners, writing letters in the air or copying a letter from a correct model is helpful (Graham, 2010). However, left-handers may find copying instructions for right-handers confusing and unsupportive (see letter formation alternatives for left-handers below). 
2. Teacher explanations on how to form letters and words must accompany the modelling. However, left-handers may also be confused by verbalised instructions that are supportive for right-handers but not left-handers (see letter formation alternatives for left handers below).
   
3. Short daily practice sessions which prove to be more effective (and perhaps more interesting) than longer weekly lessons.
4. The introduction of letters of the alphabet in formation groups rather than in ABC order. This method removes the chance for the visual confusion of letters that are closely positioned within the alphabet (b/d and p/q). For the Victorian modern cursive handwriting script, this means letters can be taught in the following groups:
• anticlockwise letters (a, c, d, g, q, e, o, f, s)
• clockwise letters (m, n, r, x, z, h, k, p)
• the i family letters (i. t, l, j)
• the u family letters (u, y, v, w, b)

Regardless of what order letters are chosen to be taught, it is important that students know the names of individual letters and a phoneme that can represent each one. Letter names and their phonemes serve as a memory cue and assist the retrieval of the motor-program required to successfully write a given letter (Graham, 2010).

Other considerations in the teaching of writing include:

• Using mnemonics to prompt student letter formation (for example, begin at the top, tail letters go under the line, ‘t’ is a teenager not fully grown or ‘w’ is like a wiggly worm).
• Teachers capitalising on the opportunities to teach handwriting through the writing practices of modelled, shared, interactive, guided and independent writing.
• Linking handwriting to other curriculum areas so that it is meaningful rather than just skill and drill.
• Ensuring handwriting does not take the place of writing. Students should also have an opportunity to write regularly for meaning and purpose.

Victorian Modern Cursive script to a digital device

Alphabet models of Victorian Modern Cursive script (joined and unjoined for right- and left-handers)

Handwriting guides

• Handwriting terminology
• Letter formation
• Joining letters
• Monitoring and assessment
• Legible writing
• Paper placement
• Writing systems of the world
• Resources for writing
• Victorian modern cursive
• Pencil Grasp
  

These guides contain multiple images of handwriting written on dotted thirds. If you need assistance accessing the concepts explored in these images, contact studentlearning@edumail.vic.gov.au.

Teaching left-handed writers

Prevalence of left-handedness

Reports of left-handedness sit between 9.5 and 15% of the population. However, the exact prevalence of left-hand preference is moderated by cultural factors, primarily pressure to change writing hand, possibly because of direct instructions by parents and teachers and also through nonexplicit model learning (Papadatou-Pastou et al, 2020).

Pencil Grasp

There is no particular pencil grasp recommended for left-handers. There are a number of appropriate pencil grasps for both left- and right handers. However, the recommendation is that left-handers hold the pencil about 2.5-3.8 cm from the point (Graham, 2009-2010; WA Dept of Education, 2017; Tas DECYP, 2023). The lower arm should be perpendicular to the bottom of the page. The wrist should be straight, and the writing hand should be below the writing line.

“So that the writing is not obscured, ask the learner to hold the implement at least 3cm (a rubber band can mark the spot) from the tip, or use a commercial triangular implement grasp placed far enough up the barrel that the learner can see around his or her hand” (Tas DECYP, 2023).

Paper placement

Left-handed students should position the page slightly to the left of them with the top left-hand corner tilted higher than the right (clockwise) (Donica, 2010; Graham, 2009-10; WA Dept of Education, 2017; NZ Ministry, 2008).

Letter formation

Basic handwriting strokes (Mackenzie and Spokes, in print):

1. clockwise ellipses
2. anti-clockwise ellipses
3. down strokes - straight and diagonal
4. cross strokes.

 “These movements are ergonomically efficient for both wrist and arm movement and suit both right- and left-handed writers. These simple movements are combined and repeated to form letter shapes. These patterns assist children to ‘pick up’ and ‘put down’ the pencil as little as possible. This way, young writers can maintain consistency of size and slope. Curves or ‘wedges’ are also used to assist with flow. The aim is that by practising these basic movements/patterns children will gradually develop their own fluent and legible style. These practise opportunities should sit alongside increased opportunities to write.” (Mackenzie and Spokes, 2018, p. 148).

Up and down movements and the direction of circular letters are the same with either hand. Soft pencils will help prevent the point digging into the page.

Supporting left-handers with letter formation.

The two biggest issues for left-handers are the direction of cross-strokes and the direction of letters with circles or ellipses.

Many left-handers prefer to write their cross strokes from right to left instead of left to right.

Some left-handers prefer to write some letters and numbers that involve circles and ellipses in a clockwise motion rather than an anti-clockwise movement (e.g. 0, O, o, Q). However, there is no research to suggest that left-handers cannot do circles and ellipses in an anti-clockwise direction as well as right-handers, particularly if both directions are taught and practiced as patterns before letters are introduced. Left-handers benefit from choice and flexibility, including the examples detailed below.

1. Circles/ellipses – left-handers may (or may not) prefer to do their circles and ellipses in a clockwise motion. It is important to note that there is no evidence to indicate that left-handers cannot do anti-clockwise movements. Left-handers use anti clockwise movements in many letters without any problems.
2. Cross bars, particularly for capital letters – left-handers may prefer to draw these from right to left.
3. Numbers 5 and 8, and letters x, X and Y may be completed in a different order to the order used by right-handers.

Verbalisation

When the teacher demonstrates the formation of a letter and verbalises the steps for writing a letter, they may inadvertently create problems for a left hander.

“Learners who are left-handed frequently find themselves attempting to imitate directions intended for right-handed students” (Tas DECYP, 2023).

While the instructions for most letters will be the same for left-and right handers, there are some letters that are different. These demonstrations and verbalisations should be prefaced with – ‘I am talking to the right-handed students now – this is how we write this letter as a right-hander’ and then provide options for left-handers.

Handwriting Intervention

If a student is struggling with handwriting automaticity, their handwriting will be slow and require more effort to complete. As their effort is aimed at the formation of letters rather than at the higher-order thinking required of a task, less competent hand writers have reduced opportunities to make progress with writing (Cahill, 2009; Medwell & Wray, 2007; 2014).

Additionally, students who struggle with handwriting often feel frustrated and tend not to persevere with composing (Case-Smith, Holland & Bishop, 2011).

There have been many studies undertaken on the benefits of handwriting intervention for students who lack automaticity with their handwriting. Explicit teaching of handwriting over an intensive period can improve the automaticity of students’ handwriting both in a primary and secondary settings (Christensen, 2005; Jones & Christensen, 1999; Graham, 2010; Graham, Harris & Fink, 2000). Improvement in handwriting speed and accuracy does impact the ability of students to generate written text.

A typical handwriting intervention might include the following:

• Undertake a timed pre-test. From the analysis of the pre-test, specific, individualised learning is targeted for students including letters each student is having difficulty with. For example, this may involve writing the alphabet, as this tests all letter formations. However, using the alphabet for this purpose is only productive if students know the alphabet and can recite it in order. 
  
• Intervention takes place for 10-15 minutes per day for a given period (Graham, Harris & Fink, 2000). Research by Jones & Christensen (1999) recommended an eight-week period for noticeable results.
• Elicit the assistance of teacher aides and parent volunteers to help facilitate the intervention. However, overall guidance and setting of goals should be directed by the classroom teacher.
• Explicit modelling of letter formations occurs during each intervention lesson followed by guided and independent practice (Graham, Harris & Fink, 2000).
• Students practise each letter until they became proficient through a variety of methods (e.g. dots to show starting points and direction, tracing letters, writing letters in different colours, developing mnemonics to recall correct letter formation) (Jones & Christensen, 1999). Modelling by a teacher and observation to ensure correct formation is needed so that practice avoids incorrect formation.
  
• Students complete the missing letter in an alphabet sequence. As students became more proficient, more letters are required to be filled in (Jones & Christensen, 1999). An emphasis on speed too early should be avoided to enable focus on legibility and automaticity.
  
• Students learn how to write the target letter in fun or unusual ways (e.g. write the letter very small, tall, wobbly, in bubble writing, turn the letter into an object that will remind them of the letter-turn s into a snake) (Graham, Harris & Fink, 2000)
• Students write against the clock for 1 minute. The number of letters successfully formed are noted and students attempt to beat their own score (Jones & Christensen, 1999). An emphasis on speed too early should be avoided to enable focus on legibility and automaticity.
  
• Intervention practice could also take the form of signing in and out of the classroom, writing a lunch order, include headings at the top of work such as day/date/month/topic, student address and first and last name (Cahill, 2009). Again, teacher observation of correct observation is needed to support correct formation.
  
• A timed post-test undertaken after the intervention to show improvement in legibility, automaticity and length. The aim is for letter formation to be “quick, smooth and effortless” rather than of a “copy-book” standard (Jones and Christensen, 1999, p. 48).