Science continuum archive

​This archive contains teaching approaches and focus ideas from the former Science Continuum F-10. It explains:

  • students’ ideas, based on their everyday experiences
  • the age-appropriate scientific view
  • critical teaching ideas and teaching activities.

The articles in this archive were written to align with the previous AusVELS curriculum.

While content may still be relevant in the classroom, always check levels and descriptions against the current science F-10 curriculum.

Visit the science and STEM section for more teaching resources.

Working towards AusVELS foundation level

Biological sciences

Chemical sciences

Science inquiry skills

Science as a human endeavour

Working towards AusVELS level 2

Working towards AusVELS level 4

Working towards AusVELS level 6

Working towards AusVELS level 8

Working towards AusVELS level 10

Science concept development maps

Science concept development maps represent student concept development from foundation to level 10.

References

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Aikenhead, G S (2006) Science Education for Everyday Life: Evidence-Based Practice. Teachers College Press: New York.

Allen, P (1988) Who sank the boat? Penguin Books Ltd.

Arizona State University (2001) Student Preconceptions and Misconceptions about Chemistry, Arizona State University Press.

Ashbrook, P (2005) ‘More than messing around with magnets’ Science and Children, 43(2), pp 20-23.

B

Baker, J (2005) Belonging, Walker Books Australia.

Bell , B (1981) ‘When is an animal not an animal?Journal of Biological Education, 15 pp 213-218.

Bell, B (1993) Children’s Science, Constructivism and Learning in Science, Geelong, Deakin University Press.

Bell, B & Barker, M (1982) ‘Towards a scientific concept of ‘animal,’’ Journal of Biological Education, 16 pp 197-200.

Bell, B & Freyberg, P (1985) Language in the Science Classroom. In Osborne, R & Freyberg, P (Eds) Learning in Science, Auckland, NZ: Heinemann.

Benchmarks online (n.d.) Section 4 - The physical setting. AAAS Project 2061. Available http://www.project2061.org/publications/bsl/online/ch4/ch4.htm

Benseghir, A & Closset, J (1996) ‘The electrostatics-electrokinetics transition: Historical and educational difficulties’ International Journal of Science Education, 18 pp 179-191.

Berkheimer, G, Charles, A, Okhee, L & Theron, B (1988) Matter and Molecules Teacher's Guide, The Institute for Research on Teaching College of Education, Michigan State University.

Berthelsen, B (1999) ‘Students’ Naïve Conceptions in Life Science’ The Michigan Science Teachers Association Journal, 44 (1) pp 13-19.

Bezzi, A & Happs, J (1994) ‘Belief systems as barriers to learning in geological education’ Journal of Geological Education, 42 pp 134-140.

Biddulph, F & Osborne, R (1984) ‘Pupils' ideas about floating and sinking,’ Research in Science Education, 14 pp 114-124.

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Blake, A (2005) ‘Do young children’s ideas about the Earth’s structure and processes reveal underlying patterns of descriptive and causal understandings of Earth science?’ Research in Science and Technological Education, 23(1) pp 59-74.

Boyes, E & Stanisstreet, M (1991) ‘Development of pupils' ideas about seeing and hearing the path of light and sound’ Research in Science & Technological Education, 9(2) pp 223 – 244.

Brook, A, Briggs, H & Bell, B (1983) Secondary Students' Ideas about Particles, Children's Learning in Science Project (CLISP) Leeds University.

Brook, A & Driver, R (1984) Aspects of Secondary Students' Understanding of the Particulate Nature of Matter, Children's Learning in Science Project, University of Leeds.

Brook, A, Briggs, H, Bell, B & Driver, R (1984) ‘Aspects of Secondary Students’ Understanding of Heat: A working paper of the Children’s Learning in Science Project’. The working papers of the in-depth phase. Hamilton, NZ: University of Waikato.

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Bryan, R, Laroder A, Tippins, D, Emaz, M & Fox, R (2008) ‘Simple Machines in the Community’ Science and Children, 45(7), pp 38-42.

Bucat, R (1983) Elements of Chemistry: Earth, Air, Fire and Water, Australian Academy of Science.

Bucat, R & Fensham, P (1995) Selected papers in Chemical Education Research: Implications for the teaching of Chemistry, Australian Science Education Research Association.

Bybee, R (2006) ‘Scientific inquiry and science teaching’ in L B Flick & N G Lederman (Eds) Scientific Inquiry and Nature of Science: Implications for Teaching, Learning and Teacher Education. Springer: Dordrecht.

C

Carey, S (1985) Conceptual Change in Childhood, Cambridge, MA : MIT Press.

Carr, M, Kirkwood, VM, Newman, B & Birdwhistel, R (1987) ‘Energy in three New Zealand secondary school junior science classrooms’ Research in Science Education, 17 pp 117-128.

Carr, M, Barker, M, Bell, B, Biddulph, F, Jones, A, Kirkwood, V, Pearson, J & Symington, D (1994) ‘The constructivist paradigm and some implications for science content and pedagogy.’ In P Fensham, R Gunstone, & R White, R (Eds) The Content of Science: A constructivist approach to its teaching and learning, London: Falmer.

Champagne, A, Klopfer, L & Anderson, J ( 1980) ‘Factors influencing the learning of classical mechanics’, American Journal of Physics, 48 pp 1074 -1079.

Chin, P, Mumby, H, Hutchinson, N, Taylor, J & Clark, F (2004) ‘Where’s the science? Understanding the form and function of workplace science’ In E Scanlon, P Murphy, J Thomas & E Whitelegg (Eds), Reconsidering Science Learning, London: RoutledgeFalmer.

Choi, O, Lee, Y & Kwon, J (2004) ‘A Study of students’ understanding of basic concepts in physics’. In Y Park (Ed) Teaching and learning of physics in cultural contexts, Singapore: World Scientific Publishing.

Clement, J (1987) ‘Overcoming students' misconceptions in physics: The role of anchoring intuitions and analogical validity.’ In J Novak, (Ed) Proceedings of the Second International Seminar on Misconceptions and Educational Strategies in Science and Mathematics, Ithaca , NY: Cornell University, 3 pp 84-96.

Coates D (1996) ‘Keeping children in the dark will help them see!’ Primary Science Review 42 pp 21-23.

Cohen, R, Eylon, B & Ganiel, U (1983) ‘Potential difference and current in simple electric circuits: A study of students’ concepts’, American Journal of Physics, 51, pp 407-412.

Contento, I (1981) Children's thinking about food and eating: A Piagetian-based study. Journal of Nutrition Education, 13 (1) pp 86-90.

Corrigan, D, Dillon, J, & Gunstone, R (2007) The Re-Emergence of Values in Science, Sense Publishers, Rotterdam.

D

Dal, B (2006) ‘The origin and extent of students’ understandings: The effect of various kinds of factors in conceptual understanding in volcanism’, Electronic Journal of Science Education, 11(1) pp 37-59.

De Vos, W & Verdonk, A (1987) 'A New Road to Reaction: Part 4, The substances and its molecules,' Journal of Chemical Education 64 pp 692-695.

Demastes, S S, Settlage, J & Good, R (1995) ‘Students' conceptions of natural selection and its role in evolution: Cases of replication and comparison’ Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 32, pp 535-550.

Dotger, S (2008) ‘Using Simple Machines to Leverage Learning’ Science and Children, 45(7) pp 22-27.

Dove, J (1998) ‘Students’ alternate conceptions in Earth science: a review of research and the implications for teaching and learning’ Research Papers in Education, 13(2) pp 183-201.

Driver, R (1985) ‘Beyond appearances: The conservation of matter under physical and chemical transformations.’ In R Driver, E Guesne, & A Tiberghien (Eds) Children's Ideas in Science, Milton Keynes, UK : Open University Press, pp 145-169.

Driver, R, Squires, A, Rushworth, P & Wood-Robinson, V (1994) Making Sense of Secondary Science: Research into children's ideas, New York: Routledge.

Driver, R, Guesne, E & Tiberghien A (Eds) (1985) Children's Ideas in Science, Milton Keynes, UK: Open University Press.

Driver, R & Millar, R (Eds) (1986) Energy matters. Leeds: Centre for Science and Mathematics Education, University of Leeds.

Duit, R & Haeussler, P (1994) ‘Learning and teaching energy’ In P Fensham, R Gunstone & R White (Eds) The content of science: A constructivist approach to its teaching and learning, London: The Falmer Press, pp 185-200.

Duit, R (1985) ‘The meaning of current and voltage in everyday language and its consequences for understanding the physical concepts of the electric circuit’ In R Duit, W Jung & C von Rhöeneck Aspects of understanding electricity, Kiel: Schmidt & Klaunig: pp 205-214.

Duit, R & von Rhöneck, C (1998) ‘Learning and understanding key concepts of electricity’ In A Tiberghien, E Jossem & J Barojas (Eds) Connecting research in physics education with teacher education. International Commission on Physics Education. Published electronically at http://www.physics.ohio-state.edu/~jossem/ICPE/TOC.html

E

Erikson, G (1994) ‘Pupils’ understanding of magnetism in practical assessment context: The relationship between content, process and progression’. In P Fensham, R Gunstone & R White (Eds) The Content of Science:A constructivist approach to its teaching and learning, London: The Falmer Press, pp 80-97.

Eshach H & Schwartz JL (2006) ‘Sound Stuff? Naive materialism in middle-school students' conceptions of sound’ International Journal of Science Education 28(7), pp 733 – 764.

F

Fensham, P (1994) ‘Beginning to teach Chemistry’. In P Fensham, R Gunstone,  & R White (Eds) The Contents of Science: A constructivist approach to its teaching and learning, Falmer Press, pp 14-28.

Ferrari, M & Chi, M T H (1998) ‘The nature of naive explanations of natural selection’ International Journal of Science Education, 20, pp 1231-1256.

Fleer, M & Hardy, T (1996) Science for children, Sydney: Prentice-Hall.

Fleer, M, Jane, B & Hardy, T (2007) Science for children, 3rd edition, Sydney: Prentice-Hall.

Fleming, R W (1987) ‘High School Graduates’ Beliefs' about Science-Technology-Society II: The Interaction Among Science, Technology and Society’ Science Education 71(2) pp 163-186.

Flick, L & Lederman, N (2006) Scientific Inquiry and Nature of Science: Implications for Teaching, Learning, and Teacher Education. Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Ford, D (2003) ‘Sixth graders’ conceptions of rocks in their local environment’ Journal of Geosciences Education, 51 (4) pp 373-377.

Fullick, P & Ratcliffe, M (1996) Teaching Ethical Aspects of Science, The Bassett Press: Southampton, UK.

G

Gabel, D & Samuel, K (1987) ‘Understanding the particulate nature of matter’, Journal of Chemical Education, 64(8) pp 695-697.

Gabel, D (1993) ‘Use of the particle nature of matter in developing conceptual understanding’, Journal of Chemical Education, 70(3) pp 193-194.

Gellert, E (1962) ‘Children's conceptions of the content and functions of the human body’, Genetic Psychology Monographs, 65 pp 293-305.

Geraedts, C L. & Boersma, K T (2006) ‘Reinventing natural selection’ International Journal of Science Education, 28, pp 843-870.

Gilbert, J & Rutherford, M (1998) ‘Models in explanations, Part 1: Horses for courses?’ International Journal of Science Education, 20, pp 83-97.

Gilbert, J, Boulter, C & Rutherford, M (1998) ‘Models in explanations, Part 2: Whose voice? Whose ears?’ International Journal of Science Education, 20, pp 187-203.

Gilbert, J K & Boulter, C J (1998) ‘Learning science through models and modelling’ In B J Fraser, & K G Tobin (Eds) International handbook of Science Education, Part 1. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Press pp 53-66.

Gomez, C, and Pozo, J (2004) ‘Relationships between everyday knowledge and scientific knowledge: Understanding how matter changes’, International Journal of Science Education, 26 (11) pp 1325–1344.

Gott, Duggan, Roberts & Hussain (1995) Research into understanding scientific evidence available at http://www.dur.ac.uk/richard.gott/Evidence/cofev.htm (Retrieved 14 May, 2008).

Gott, R. Duggan, S & Roberts, R (2003) University of Durham. http://www.dur.ac.uk/richard.gott/Evidence/cofev.htm (Retrieved 14 May 2008).

Greene, E D (1990) ‘The logic of university students' misunderstanding of natural selection’ Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 27, pp 875-885.

Griffiths, A, Miller, J, Susuki, D, Lewontin R & Gelbart, W (1993) An introduction to Genetic Analysis Edition 5. New York: Freeman & Company.

Grosslight, L, Unger, C M, Jay, E & Smith, C L (1991) ‘Understanding models and their use in science: conceptions of middle and high school students and experts’ Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 28, pp 799-822.

Guisasola, J (1995) ‘The meaningful learning of the fundamental concepts of electrostatics based on a constructivist model of teaching-learning by investigation’ in D Psillos (Ed), Proceedings of the Second Ph. D. Summer School. European Science Education Research Association.

Gunstone, R and Mitchell, I (1998) ‘Metacognition and conceptual change’. In J J Mintzes, J H Wandersee, and J Novak (Eds) Teaching Science for Understanding: A Human Constructivist View, San Diego: CA Academic Press, pp 133-163.

Gunstone, R and Watts, M (1985) ‘Force and motion’. In R Driver, E Guesne and A Tiberghien (Eds) Children's ideas in science, Milton Keynes, UK: Open University Press, pp 85-104.

Gunstone, R, Mulhall, P & McKittrick, B (2009) Complexities in Teaching Mechanics and Electricity. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer (in preparation).

Gunstone, R, McKittrick, B & Mulhall, B (200x) ‘Considering complexities in teaching mechanics and electricity’. Publication pending.

H

Helman, H (1998) Great Feuds in ScienceTen of the liveliest disputes ever. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

Hapkiewicz, A (1992) ‘Finding a List of Science Misconceptions’ The Michigan Science Teachers Association Journal 38 pp 11-14.

Happs, J (1980) Particles: A Working Paper of the Learning in Science project, Hamilton, NZ: University of Waikoto.

Happs, J (1982) Rocks and minerals: A Working Paper of the Learning in Science Project, University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand.

Harlen, W (1993) Teaching and Learning Primary Science, London: Paul Chapman Publishing.

Harlen W (2000) ‘There’s more to light than meets the eye!’ Primary Science Review 64, pp 20-22.

Harrington, R (1999) ‘Discovering the reasoning behind the words: An example from electrostatics’ American Journal of Physics 67 pp S58–S59.

Harrison, A & Treagust, D (2000) ‘A typology of school science models’ International Journal of Science Education, 22, pp 1011-1026.

Harrison , A & Treagust, D (2000) ‘Learning about atoms, molecules and chemical bonds: A case study of multiple model use in Grade 11 chemistry’, Science Education, 84 pp 352-381.

Harrison, A & Treagust, D (1996) ‘Secondary students' mental models of atoms and molecules: Implications for teaching Chemistry’, Science Education, 80(5) pp 509-534.

Hart, C, Mulhall, P, Berry, M, Loughran, J & Gunstone, R (2000) ‘What is the purpose of this prac? Or Can students learn something from doing experiments?’ Journal of Research in Science Teaching 37, pp 655-675.

Haslam, F & Gunstone, RF (1996) ‘Observation in science classes: students’ beliefs about its nature and purpose’ Paper given at the conference of the National Association for Research in Science teaching, St Louis.

Haupt, G (2006) ‘Concepts of magnetism held by elementary school children’ Science Education, 36(3), pp 162-168.

Hawley, D (2002) ‘Building understanding in young scientists’ Journal of Geoscience Education, 50 (4) pp 363-371

Helman, H (1998) Great Feuds in ScienceTen of the liveliest disputes ever. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

Henriques, L (2000) ‘Children's misconceptions about weather: A review of the literature’. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the National Association of Research in Science Teaching, New Orleans, LA, April 29th 2000.

Hickey, R & Schibeci, R (1999), ‘The attraction of magnetism’ Physics Education, 34(8), pp 383-388.

Hodge, D (2000) Simple Machines, Kids Can Press, Ltd,Tonawanda, New York.

Howe, A, Davies, D, McMahon, K, Tower, L and Scott, T (2005) Science 5-11 a Guide for Teachers, Primary, David Fulton Publishers.

Hubber, P and Tytler, R ( 2004) Conceptual Change Models of Teaching and Learning: The art of teaching science, Sydney: Allen and Unwin.

J

Jimenez-Aleixandre, M P (1992) ‘Thinking about theories or thinking with theories?: A classroom study with natural selection’ International Journal of Science Education, 14, pp 51-61.

Jimenez-Aleixandre, M P (1994) ‘Teaching evolution and natural selection: A look at textbooks and teachers’ Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 31, pp 519-535.

Johnson, P (2002) ‘ Children's understanding of substances, Part 2: Explaining chemical change’, International Journal of Science Education, 24(10) pp 1037-1054.

Jones, B (1984) ‘How solid is a solid?’ Research in Science Education, 14 pp 104-113.

Jones, P (1998) Student Achievement in Natural and Processed Materials, Department of Education Western Australia.

K

Keil, F (1989) Concepts, Kinds, and Cognitive Development, Cambridge, MA : MIT Press.

Kerr, K, Beggs, J, Murphy, C (2006) ‘Comparing children’s and student teachers’ ideas about science concepts’, Irish Educational Studies, 25(3) pp 289-302.

Krnel, D, Watson, R, and Glazar, S (1998) ‘Survey of research related to the development of the concept of “matter”’, International Journal of Science Education, 20 pp 257-289.

Kusnick, J (2002) ‘Growing pebbles and conceptual prisms – understanding the source of student misconceptions about rock formation’. Journal for Geological Education, 50(1) pp 31-39.

Kyle, W, Desmond, L, Family, E, Shymansky, A (1989) ‘ Enhancing learning through conceptual change teaching’, Research Matters–to the Science Teacher, 8902, National Association for Research in Science Teaching.

L

Leach, J, Driver, R, Scott, P, Wood-Robinson, C (1992) Progression in Understanding of Ecological Concepts by Pupils Aged 5 to 16. Leeds, UK: The University of Leeds, Centre for Studies in Science and Mathematics Education.

Leach, J, Driver, R, Scott, P, & Wood-Robinson, C (1995) ‘Children’s ideas about ecology, I: Theoretical background, design and methodology’, International Journal of Science Education, 17 pp 721-732.

Lederman, N (2006) ‘Syntax of nature of science within inquiry and science instruction’ In L B Flick & N G Lederman (Eds) Scientific Inquiry and Nature of Science: Implications for Teaching, Learning and Teacher Education. Springer: Dordrecht.

Lewis, J (1999). In Reiss, M (Ed) Teaching Secondary Biology, John Murray Ltd.

Lewis, J, Leach, J and Wood-Robinson, C (2000) ‘All in the genes? Young people’s understanding of the nature of genes’, Journal of Biological Education, 34(2) pp 74-79.

Lewis, J, Leach, J and Wood-Robinson, C (1999) Working Paper 4:Understanding the genetic basis of cells; B: the written probes, University of Leeds, Centre for Studies in Science and Mathematics Education.

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Liégeois, L & Mullet, E (2002) ‘High school students’ understanding of resistance in simple series circuits’ International Journal of Science Education, 24, pp 551-564.

Leite, L & Afonso, A (2001) ‘Portuguese school textbooks' illustrations and students' alternative conceptions on sound’ In R Pinto & S Surinach Physics Teacher Education Beyond 2000 Paris: Elsevier, pp 167-168.

Loughran J, Berry M, & Mulhall P (2004) Human Circulatory System: Attempting to Capture and Portray Science Teachers’ Pedagogical Content Knowledge, Faculty of Education, Monash University.

Loughran, J, Berry, A, Mulhall, P (2006) Understanding and developing science teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge, Rotterdam/Taipei: Sense Publishers.

Loughran, J, Milroy, P, Berry, A, Gunstone, R, & Mulhall, P (2001) ‘Documenting science teachers' pedagogical content knowledge through PaP-eRs’, Research in Science Education , 31 pp 289-307.

Loughran, J, Berry, A, & Mulhall, P (2006). Understanding and developing science teachers' pedagogical content knowledge. Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Sense Publishers.

M

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Maloney, D O’Kuma T  Heieggelke C & Van Heuvelen A (2001) ‘Surveying students conceptual knowledge of Electricity and Magnetism’ American Journal of Physics, 69(7), pp 12-23.

Marques L & Thompson, D (1997) ‘Portuguese students’ understanding at ages 10-11 and 14-15 of the origin and nature of the Earth and the development of life’ Research in Science and Technological Education 15(1) pp 29-51.

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Niaz, M (2000) ‘The Oil Drop Experiment: A rational reconstruction of the Millikan-Ehrenhaft controversy and its implications for chemistry textbooks’ Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 37(5) pp 480-508.

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O

Osborne J (1993) ‘Young childrens’ (7-11) ideas about light and their development’ International Journal of Science Education 15(1), pp 83-93.

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R

Reiss, M (Ed) (1999) Teaching Secondary Biology, London: Association for Science Education, John Murray Publishers Ltd.

Reiss, M, & Tunnicliffe, S (2001) ‘Students’ understandings of human organs and organ systems’, Research in Science Education, 31 pp 383–399.

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